Evidence Base

A collection of research and research questions

While the TeachThera model has not yet been empirically tested, its components and underlying principles have been extensively researched. This section will endeavor to show this.

In this section, we will explore current research and pose research questions for further study. Our explorations here will start with a question/inquiry. (Artificial intelligence (AI) used for efficiency. Please follow the links when provided and desired for a deeper dive).

Evidence-based practice is vital for any organization that provides education and therapy services. This sustains confidence in the model for recipients, payers, and employees. It is an ethic that TeachThera Bridge is committed to following as part of its mission.

TeachThera Bridge also has a mission to innovate continually. The ideas of evidence and innovation are not mutually exclusive. Current innovation should build upon past research. The TeachThera Bridge model is committed to program evaluation using both qualitative and quantitative measures. In fact, many of these measures can be naturally embedded in the Reggio Emilia Approach. Adding to the general body of knowledge about education and therapy is also a goal.

Gathering research is a process. More will be added to this page as it is gathered.

AI Overview of types of research

Program evaluation assesses a specific program's merit for decision-making, focusing on worth, while evidence-based research seeks to build generalizable knowledge to advance theory, focusing on truth, though both use scientific methods; evaluation answers "Does this specific program work?" for stakeholders, whereas research answers broader "How do things work?" for the scientific community, often using controlled studies to generalize findings to wider populations.

Program Evaluation

Purpose: To judge the value, effectiveness, and impact of a specific program, intervention, or policy to inform decisions (e.g., continue, modify, expand).
Focus: A particular program, its stakeholders, and its context.
Questions: Practical questions like "Is this curriculum working?" or "Is this intervention meeting its goals?".
Audience: Program managers, funders, administrators, and practitioners.

Evidence-Based Research (General Research)

Purpose: To generate new, generalizable knowledge, test theories, and contribute to a broader body of scientific understanding.
Focus: Broad populations and theoretical principles, aiming for findings applicable beyond one specific context.
Questions: Theoretical questions like "What are the underlying mechanisms of behavior?" or "Does this principle apply universally?".
Audience: Scholars, academics, and the wider scientific community.

Key Differences

Application vs. Theory: Evaluation is applied, focusing on practical improvement; research is often theoretical, aiming for broader understanding.
Context: Evaluation embraces context to be realistic; research often controls for context to isolate variables for generalizability.
Value: Evaluation value is in guiding action; research value is in advancing knowledge, often validated by peer review.

Overlap: Evaluation Research

When evaluation uses rigorous scientific methods (like randomized controlled trials) to test a program's effectiveness, it becomes evaluation research, a form of applied research that bridges both worlds by providing strong evidence for practice.

What evidence do we have for the use of the Reggio Emilia approach for elementary-aged students with behavioral challenges?

Unfortunately, the body of evidence is limited. Is this possibly because the use of embedded informal program evaluation, which is part of the inquiry-based approach, created confidence in the approach?

AI Overview

Evidence for Reggio Emilia with elementary behavioral challenges

points to positive indirect impacts, like better transitions and socio-emotional skills, suggesting reduced problems, but lacks direct, large-scale empirical studies proving efficacy for behavior itself; research highlights how its focus on environment, documentation, and collaboration fosters competence, reducing frustration and fostering positive adjustment, especially in early transitions, though more focused studies are needed for older kids.

What the Research Shows (Indirect Evidence):

Reduced Problem Behaviors: A study found that strong implementation of Reggio-inspired transition practices led to lower problem behaviors and better adjustment when students moved to elementary school.
Stronger Socio-Emotional Skills: Evaluations suggest positive links to socio-emotional skills, which are foundational for managing behavior.
Increased Motivation & Initiative: When children deeply engage with topics (supported by documentation), they become more motivated, ask more questions, and take initiative, potentially reducing disengagement that leads to behavioral issues.
Empowering Environments: The "third teacher" concept, using rich, aesthetically pleasing environments, fosters creativity, communication, and collaboration, creating calmer, more focused learning spaces.
Parental Involvement: Strong parent partnerships build a supportive community, which enhances children's feelings of security and connection, positively impacting behavior.

Limitations & Gaps:

Lack of Direct Empirical Data: Most research on Reggio-inspired approaches is exploratory, focusing on understanding the philosophy rather than proving specific child outcomes, especially for behavior.
Focus on Early Years: Much of the data centers on preschool and early elementary transitions, with less robust evidence specifically for older elementary students with significant behavioral needs.

Why it's Promising for Behavior (Theoretical Links):

Competent Child View: Seeing children as capable reduces teacher frustration and fosters respect, a key shift from punitive models.
Documentation as Reflection: Making learning visible (documentation) helps children understand their processes, increasing self-awareness and regulation.
Project-Based Learning: Deep dives into interests build confidence and reduce frustration, channeling energy into productive work.

In essence, while direct "behavioral intervention" studies are sparse, the core principles of Reggio Emilia create conditions (competence, engagement, support, calm environments) that naturally mitigate many behaviors, making it a promising framework.

References

Schneider, B. H., Manetti, M., Frattini, L., Rania, N., Santo, J. B., Coplan, R. J., & Cwinn, E. (2014). Successful transition to elementary school and the implementation of facilitative practices specified in the ReggioEmilia philosophy. School Psychology International, 35(5), 447-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0143034313511003.

Howley-Rouse, A. (2020, June 28). The Reggio Emilia approach. THE EDUCATION HUB. https://theeducationhub.org.nz/the-reggio-emilia-approach/

Emerson, A. M., & Linder, S. M. (2019). A review of research of the Reggio-Inspired approach: an integrative re-framing. Early Years Journal of International Research and Development, 41(4), 428–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2019.1591350

What research is available that validates a child-centered approach in education?

The Reggio Emilia approach is deeply child-centered. Research strongly validates child-centered approaches

AI Overview

Research strongly validates child-centered approaches, showing they

boost motivation, self-esteem, social skills, and academic performance while reducing anxiety and behavior problems in young children, with benefits like increased readiness for school, better emotional regulation, and sustained positive outcomes across various settings, from early education to healthcare. Key findings highlight improved learning motivation, deeper social interaction, and stronger development in both academic and socioemotional domains, often outperforming purely teacher-directed methods.

Key research findings:

Motivation & Self-Esteem: Studies link child-centered classrooms (vs. didactic ones) to greater motivation, higher self-esteem, and less anxiety in preschoolers.
Academic & Social Skills: Child-centered practices support better reading and math skills development, more sophisticated social interactions, and improved classroom behavior.
Long-Term Effects: Positive impacts, including increased academic motivation and lower stress behaviors, appear to last beyond early childhood.
Effectiveness in Various Contexts: Child-centered principles are effective in addressing specific issues like childhood depression (Child-Centered Play Therapy) and improving care for children with life-limiting conditions.
Whole-Child Development: This approach strengthens all domains of a child's development, leading to increased school readiness and overall success, according to the Teaching Strategies blog.

Examples from research:

Early Education: Research shows child-centered teaching predicts better reading and math development in early elementary school, benefiting children regardless of their initial skill level, while teacher-directed methods can hinder progress for some.
Healthcare: Applying child-centered approaches in pediatric care, focusing on the child's unique needs, improves compliance with medical procedures and overall satisfaction for children and parents.

References

Lerkkanen, M., Kiuru, N., Pakarinen, E., Poikkeus, A., Rasku-Puttonen, H., Siekkinen, M., & Nurmi, J. (2016). Child-centered versus teacher-directed teaching practices: Associations with the development of academic skills in the first grade at school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.023

Pakarinen, E., Imai-Matsumura, K., Yada, A., Yada, T., Leppänen, A., & Lerkkanen, M. (2023). Child-Centered and Teacher-Directed practices in two different countries: A descriptive case study in Finnish and Japanese Grade 1 classrooms. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 38(1), 30–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2023.2188059

Why do teachers shift emphasis from child-centered instruction to teacher directed when presented with behavioral challenges and poor academic performance?

Research is showing that both child-centered and teacher-directed approaches are useful at various stages of learning. The Reggio approach seeks to be flexible, taking into account feedback from observations of student needs. Likewise, the TeachThera Bridge model seeks to avoid the rigidity of overreliance on one way of learning.

AI Overview

Teachers shift to teacher-directed instruction for behavioral/academic issues because

it provides immediate structure, control, and clear guidance when students lack self-regulation, leading to quicker management of disruptions and direct skill-building, even though child-centered<>/nav>> methods are better long-term for independent learners; it's a pragmatic response to reduce stress and maintain order in chaotic situations. This shift acknowledges that unmotivated or struggling students often need explicit modeling and direct scaffolding, which less structured approaches can''t provide effectively, especially under pressure.

Reasons for the Shift

Immediate Control & Order: Teacher-directed methods (lectures, clear rules, reprimands) quickly establish order, which is crucial when behaviors are disruptive and prevent learning for the whole class.
Addressing Lack of Self-Regulation: Students struggling with behavior or academics often lack the self-regulation needed for student-centered<>/nav>> learning; direct instruction provides the external structure they need to focus.
Teacher Efficacy & Stress: Managing challenging behaviors is emotionally draining; teachers may revert to direct instruction to regain a sense of control and reduce stress, improving their self-efficacy.
Targeted Skill Building: For novice learners, explicit modeling and direct guidance in teacher-directed settings are often more effective for acquiring foundational skills than less structured approaches, preventing misconceptions.
Pragmatism for Unmotivated Students: Child-centered learning requires student motivation; when students are uninterested or unprepared, they may disengage, making direct instruction a more reliable way to deliver content.

The Challenge

While effective in the short term for management, over-reliance on teacher-directed instruction can hinder the development of critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills that student-centered<>/nav>> approaches foster.
The goal is often a blend of both, but crises in behavior or academics push teachers toward the more controllable, direct method.

References

KnowledgeWorks. (2025, October 15). Traditional classroom management versus student-centered classroom management - KnowledgeWorks. https://knowledgeworks.org/resources/classroom-management-traditional-student-centered/

Sherrington, T. (2019, December 8). Myth: Teacher-led instruction and student-centred learning are opposites. Teacherhead. https://teacherhead.com/2019/12/08/myth-teacher-led-instruction-and-student-centred-learning-are-opposites/

Van Loon, M. H., Bayard, N. S., Steiner, M., & Roebers, C. M. (2020). Connecting teachers’ classroom instructions with children’s metacognition and learning in elementary school. Metacognition and Learning, 16(3), 623–650. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09248-2

References for Video: Why use a Reggio Emilia classroom for children with complex trauma (Click to expand)

References for Why use Reggio Emillia Video

Flow Research Collective. (2023, March 20). IntraConnected: Exploring Chaos and Rigidity in the Self with Dr. Dan Siegel [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WQn9gcFcFIg

Gobbel, R. (2023). Raising Kids with Big, Baffling Behaviors: Brain-Body-Sensory Strategies That Really Work. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Miller, L. (2022). Tabular Summary of Studies about Token Economy.

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1efew1C-pQn0l7NvEFvuKfzbJQARfYZ-FfGOD4kiC4ZQ/edit?tab=t.0

Rauktis, M. E. (2016). "When you first get there, you wear red": Youth perceptions of point and level systems in group home care: C & A. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 33(1), 91-102. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-015-0406-4

Riel, J., & Martin, R. L. (2017). Creating great choices: A Leader’s Guide to Integrative Thinking. Harvard Business Press.

Sherrington, T. (2017, April 28). The Progressive-Traditional Pedagogy Tree. Teacherhead. https://teacherhead.com/2014/03/15/the-progressive-traditional-pedagogy-tree/

Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A. K., Nyre, J. E., Puddy, R. W., & Roberts, M. C. (2004). Innovative Treatment for Children With Serious Emotional Disturbance: Preliminary Outcomes for a School-Based Intensive Mental Health Program. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33(2), 359–365. https://doi-org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_17

Winfrey, O., & Perry, B. (2021). What happened to you?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing. Boxtree.

Advancing Comprehensive School Mental Health: Guidance from the field. (2019). In National Center for School Mental Health. https://www.schoolmentalhealth.org/media/som/microsites/ncsmh/documents/bainum/Advancing-CSMHS_September-2019.pdf

References for Podcast: A Look at Truama-Informed School Practices (Click to expand)

A look at Trauma-Informed School Practices in Idaho, Podcast

Annotated Bibliography

Linda Miller

Created for English 102, Boise State University

Ann (Alias), Personal Communication, October 1, 2019

Ann (Alias), an educator at an Idaho alternative high school, explains the need for investing personal initiative to connect with at-risk and struggling teens. Ann provides us with background information on the reasons for the extreme behavior in the class. She helps us understand that youth want to do well. She discusses how punishment can escalate behavior.

I was impressed with her relaxed demeanor and her care for students. She discusses how the teachers support one another, including training sessions for teachers at her school, and some of the methods employed.

Blue Cross of Idaho Foundation for Health. https://www.bcidahofoundation.org/healthyminds/

This is a resource referenced by Dr. Charlie Silva, providing instructions for partnering with local providers to bring mental health services into schools. This is one of the most exciting developments I found in my research, and it is of special interest to those of us in the parent network who have been seeking more effective and accessible ways to offer services to waiting youth. It is a step-by-step guide for partnering with agencies that are already expressing interest in becoming a partner; they are the ones who wrote the manual. This was also sponsored by Terry Reilly, Southwest Health Collaborative, St Luke's, Lifeways, Pathways, and the Nampa school district.

Brown, Jennifer, Personal Communication, September 30, 2019.

Ms. Brown, a third-grade teacher at Pepper Ridge Elementary, takes us on a tour of her classroom and explains the importance of connecting with her students. I was able to see the props around the room, including comfortable seating areas and various sensory manipulatives. Ms Brown is one of two teachers at the school who try to use trauma-informed practices. She explains some of the class management strategies, but more importantly, she discusses her relationship with the students. Ms. Brown later explains, off the record, her motivation for teaching at-risk students. I am impressed with her dedication to using trauma-informed practices, even when no one else has asked her to do so.

Cox, G. L., Arnold, K. F., Kummer, T. R., McCullough, D. K., & Settle, A. E. (2017). Hand in hand: a manual for creating trauma-informed leadership committees. Boulder, CO: Beyond Consequences Institute, LLC.

I chose this book to share the philosophy behind trauma-informed practices. We find a nice definition for a trauma-informed school system. The book then instructs teachers and administrators on implementing trauma-informed practices. This book is important to include because it is a manual for implementation. It is a companion book to Help for Billy.

Forbes, H. T. (2013). Help for Billy: A Beyond Consequences Approach to Helping Children in the Classroom. Cork: BookBaby.

I chose this book as part of my research because it provides excellent case studies and stories that illustrate the types of behaviors that are symptoms of trauma. Behaviors like hitting, throwing things, violence of other types, and also avoidance. Ms. Forbes walks us through the brain and explains the changes that can occur in the brain due to trauma. She explains the fight, flight, or freeze response governed by the central parts of the brain and the amygdala. We learn that due to these changes in the brain, what looks like “won’t” is actually “can’t”, at least until the child has a regulated body system. We learn about regulation, dysregulation and the window of tolerance, and about hypo-arousal and hyper-arousal. This is basically trauma 101.

The book is written for educators. It is sensitive to the problems and goals of education systems. It provides practical, day-to-day methods and examples of how they have been helpful in the classroom.

Hoover, S., Lever, N., Sachdev, N., Bravo, N., Schlitt, J., Acosta Price, O., Sheriff, L. & Cashman, J. (2019). Advancing Comprehensive School Mental Health: Guidance From the Field. Baltimore, MD: National Center for School Mental Health. University of Maryland School of Medicine.

This reference was created by a collection of contributors to provide information to administrators. Statistics referenced by Dr. Charlie Silva appear on pages 14-15 of this scholarly paper. As stated in the report, “This report offers collective insight and guidance to local communities and states to advance comprehensive school mental health systems. Contents were informed by examination of national best practices, performance standards, local and state exemplars, and recommendations provided by federal/national, state, local, and private leaders.”

I included this source to give statistics that emphasize the need for trauma-informed systems. Trauma-informed is a subset of a comprehensive school mental health system. The fact that the statistics were significant enough for Dr. Silva to quote them suggests that the paper has reached individuals in the state who have the authority to influence changes.

The paper then summarizes the necessary changes. It gives a timeline of work that has been done and lists the agencies involved. The article also summarizes, “Effective comprehensive school mental health systems contribute to improved student and school outcomes, including greater academic success, reduced exclusionary discipline practices, improved school climate and safety, and enhanced student social and emotional behavioral functioning.” These are all goals that educators consider important.

Jarvis (Alias) and Leon (Alias), Personal Communication, October 1, 2019

Jarvis (Alias) and Leon (Alias), Administrators at an Idaho alternative high school, share the unique challenges for administrators working with at risk youth at an alternative high school. They discuss the underlying problems the students face. Leon emphasizes the importance of teachers knowing how to de-escalate a situation rather than escalating it. They explain a process that they used to train teachers at their site. They offer some strategies for calming students and helping them prepare to learn. They speak about the training for their building teachers and administrators. From the trainings, Jarvis mentions that the most transformative thing for him was to learn about current brain research. Leon and Jarvis then discuss the usefulness of compassion in connecting with students. Jarvis predicts that we will need to examine public education through a new lens and expresses his enthusiasm for this approach.

I was impressed with how calm and collected Jarvis and Leon were as they spoke about serious issues. They seem invested and capable of making changes.

Marzano, R. J., Warrick, P. B., Rains, C. L., Dufour, R., & Jones, J. C. (2018). Leading a high reliability school. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

I am including this book because it was part of the research process. I attended a back to school night at my own child’s alternative middle school. The book was introduced to show some of the principles followed at the school. It talks about using teams effectively and uses the term Positive learning community, or PLC. There is an emphasis in the book on keeping statistics and on testing. The focus is on creating leadership teams among the teachers. There is also a focus on maintaining standards by encouraging teachers to support one another and to promote the curriculum.

While the principles in the book are important, there was one key focus that was missing, that was the focus on the needs of the child. It was concerning to me as it is my child who they seem to overlook. Ironically, no team meetings had been proposed at the time of me doing this research to discuss his needs, even though he is still on record there but not attending.

My purpose in attending the event was to listen to the presentation and hopefully ask for an interview. I did ask for the interview, but was rejected the next day.

Psychological and Behavioral Impact of Trauma: Middle School Students. (2008). PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi: 10.1037/e563382009-001

This article was referenced to help define situations that are traumatic and to give us some background ideas and stories of how trauma can affect learning. I wanted to find examples of behaviors in the classroom that may indicate trauma.

I liked that the authors explained that students can act out and act in. Behaviors of avoidance also negatively impact a student and can be symptoms of trauma. “Be aware of both the children who act out AND the quiet children who don’t appear to have behavioral problems. These students often “fly beneath the radar and do not get help.” was given as an explanation.

Ultimately, I did not use the case studies as I felt they did not communicate the emotional depth of the problem. I will use stories from the other sources. The list of symptoms provided in this article was useful as a summary.

Silva, Charlie, Dr., Personal Communication, October 1, 2019

Dr. Charlie Silva, Director of Special Education Services with the Idaho State Department of Education, reaffirms the importance of trauma-informed practices, offers national statistics, and shares current efforts and future plans for trauma-informed training of educators in Idaho. Off record, she reminded me of the Family and Community Engagement conference and the corresponding Safety conference that the department was sponsoring. I was able to attend the conference and participate in an idea-gathering activity focused on safety. There were numerous opportunities to contribute to the ongoing conversation about trauma-informed practices and training.

Interviewing Dr. Silva was part of an ongoing conversation that I, along with a few other parents in the Federation of Families Parent Network, have had with her. A year ago, she met with us. She has been gracious enough to listen to our challenges and discuss with us the plans the state has for mental health and promoting trauma-informed education. At that time, we gave her an idea that I had for a therapeutic school. She liked the idea, but helped us understand that the direction that she needed to promote at the time was moving forward to get the trauma training to educators. She helped us see the need to lift every school, not just build one special school.

Page updated

Google Sites

Report abuse